For example, it has been reported that the stimulation of the cingulate gyrus in humans causes complex hallucinatory phenomena, emotional changes, rapid eye movement, and oneiric sensation. Abbott, A. A. Muzur, A., Pace-Schott, E. F., & Hobson, J. Gramtica de los Sueos. (1996) found a decrease in the activity of the frontal lobes and an increase in the amygdaloid complex. In the REM phase, the eyes move rapidly in all directions, and upon waking up, people frequently report having dreamt. Although no one definition of neuropsychology has been accepted throughout the field, Alexander R. Luria (1974), considered the founder of modern neuropsychology, defined it as follows: A new branch of scientific knowledge, the main aim of which is to investigate the role of specific brain systems, in the complex forms of mental activity. According to this definition, we can pose the following question: Is dreaming a complex form of mental activity? Other areas that are activated are the prefrontal medial region and the part that corresponds to the anterior region of the cingulate gyrus (Braun et al., 1997; Buchsbaum et al., 1989). Lurias model of the functional units of the brain and the neuropsychology of dreaming, Universidad Autnoma de Nuevo Len (UANL), Monterrey, Mexico, http://psychologyinrussia.com/volumes/pdf/2016_4/psychology_2016_4_7.pdf. Neurocognitive consequences of sleep deprivation. New Jersey: Psychology Press. (1985) reported a case of a patient with a lesion in the left temporo-occipital region due to a cerebrovascular accident. 109126). There is a proven antidepressant effect of REM sleep deprivation (Vogel et al., 1980; Nofzinger, 2005). Trastornos del Sueo: Diagnstico y Tratamiento. It is well known that dreams are difficult to remember in wakefulness (Fisher, 1973). 8798). (1987). Themes: En F. Ostrosky, A. Ardila, & R. Chayo (Eds. If, after this, we assume that reality training is a complex form of mental activity, the next questions would be: Which particular brain systems are involved in this process? Scientific American, 267(5), 126-133. doi: 10.1038/scientificamerican0992-126, Gibbs, W. W. Functional neuroanatomy of human rapid-eye-movement sleep and dreaming. These researchers suggested that this temporary dissociation between the executive and perceptual areas is the cause of the characteristic bizarreness of dreams. Meanwhile, Koukkou and Lehman (1983) have suggested that the cerebral state of an adult during dreaming corresponds functionally to the state of wakefulness during childhood, based on the similarity of the electroencephalographic activity of the different phases of sleep and in human development phases. It also includes vital cognitive functions such as sustained attention, awareness, and insight (Luria, 1974; Cummings, 1995; Stretton, & Thompson, 2012). Tidsskrift for den Norske laegeforening: tidsskrift for praktisk medicin, ny raekke, 129(17), 1758-1761. doi: 10.4045/tidsskr.08.0465. Mxico: La Prensa Mdica Mexicana. Seeking the criminal element. (2003). Luria, A. R. (1974). Studies with positron emission computerized tomography (PET) have confirmed an increase in the brainstems metabolism (Braun et al., 1997), which generates electroencephalographic and metabolic activation, as well as stimulates of the posterior cortical and subcortical areas, especially the limbic-emotional system. Research Communications in Psychology, Psychiatry & Behavior, 9(1), 15 -30. New perspectives for the study of lucid dreaming: From brain stimulation to philosophical theories of self-consciousness. (1992) found that frontal lesions do not affect dreaming, and some patients with frontal damage show an increased frequency of nightmares (Colace1, Salotti, & Ferreira, 2015), indirectly confirming the previously mentioned PET findings. Over the last few decades, interesting neuropsychological findings have started to surface about the relationship between the production and recollection of oneiric processes. doi: 10.1055/s-2005-867080. Stretton, J., & Thompson, P. J. doi: 10.1038/383163a0. Noreika, V., Windt, J. M., Lenggenhager, B., & Karim, A. This researcher proposes this theory in light of the observation that the selective deprivation of REM sleep in animals produces increases in aggressive, sexual, and food-seeking behaviors. These are dreams where the control and direction of the oneiric process are maintained, and the dreamer is aware that he is dreaming. The activation of the First Unit also differs from that in wakefulness, in that it produces a greater stimulation of the structures in Unit L, the unit that produces emotional activation (Calvo, 1995). doi: 10.5665/sleep.1974, Dresler, M., Wehrle, R., Spoormarker, V. I., Steiger, A., Holsboer, F., Czisch, M., & Hobson, J. Dream recall in brain-damaged patients: A contribution to the neuropsychology of dreaming through a review of the literature. The evolution of the cognitive model of depression and its neurobiological correlates. Cognitive and emotional processes during dreaming: a neuroimaging view. Meanwhile, Vogel (1979) argued that the decrease in the amount of REM sleep as a consequence of the use of antidepressant drugs, is caused by an increase in impulse-motivated behavior during wakefulness, and therefore, a clinical improvement of depression. tb38127.x, Desseilles, M., Dang-Vu, T. T., Sterpenich, V., & Schwartz, S. (2011). Cortex, 17(4), 603-609. doi: 10.1016/S0010-9452(81)80066-4, Koukkou, M., & Lehmann, D. (1983). Rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder. ), The Neuropsychology of Sleep and Dreaming (pp. Madrid: Alianza Editorial. This is possibly explained through the state-dependent theory (Koukkou & Lehmann, 1983). Life Sciences, 45(15), 13491356. doi: 10.1126/science.281.5380.1185, Buchsbaum, M. S., Gillin, J. C., Wu, J., Hazlett, E., Sicotte, N., Dupont, R. E., Bunney, W. E. (1989). (1973). As we have examined, the prefrontal lobe of the human being is extremely sensitive to sleep; its functioning is altered by sleep deprivation, and it benefits and recovers with sleep of good quality and quantity (Muzur, Pace-Schott, Hobson, 2002). Magoun, H. W. (1964). Answering these and other questions will allow continuing progress in this new and interesting field in the neurosciences: the neuropsychology of dreaming. To answer this question, it would be of great help to describe the phenomenology of dreaming. In fact, patients with depression show an increase in the metabolism of the dorsolateral region of the prefrontal lobe during REM sleep instead of the decrease which is observed in subjects without depression. doi: 10.1016/0093-934X(85)90028-8, Peterson, N. D., Henke, P. G., & Hayes, Z. (1995). That being said, it can be expected that, upon the activation of Unit L and a simultaneous decrease in the functioning of the prefrontal lobe during wakefulness, any person could behave in an uninhibited, impulsive or aggressive way, with difficulties in planning and self-regulation. Then, according to this hypothesis, a functional regression of cognitive activity in dreaming would imply incomplete functioning of the prefrontal lobe. Several studies agree that lesions in the areas involved in visuospatial processing and representation in Unit 2, result in a reduction in, or elimination of, dreaming, a neuropsychological syndrome called anoneria. In contrast to sleepwalking, which occurs during the slow-wave stage of non-REM sleep and in people who generally behave in a peaceful way, patients with RBD frequently have accidents and carry out physical and verbal assaults on other people during these episodes (Tellez, 1998; Schenck, Bundlie, Patterson, & Mahowald, 1987; Schenck, Milner, Hurwitz, Bundlie, & Mahowald, 1989). The Neuropsychology Of Sleep and Dreaming (pp. Universidad Autnoma de Nuevo Len (UANL), Monterrey, Mexico, Snchez-Juregui, T. de J. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 362, 671 678. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2006.2003, Gershon, E. S., & Rieder, R. O. According to Solms (2000), a renowned researcher in the neuropsychology of dreaming, these data support the essential idea proposed by Freud (1966), who maintained that one of the functions of dreaming was to allow instinctive impulses to emerge (limbic) without the censorship mechanism (dorsolateral and orbital prefrontal regions), thus allowing the attainment of repressed desires in a safe way. Foulkes, D. (1982). Scientific American, 272(3), 102-110. doi: 10.1038/scientificamerican0395-100, Goldberg, E. We can conclude that dreams, as well as cognitive activity in wakefulness, come in various forms and contents. Neural correlates of dream lucidity obtained from contrasting lucid versus non-lucid REM sleep: A combined EEG/fMRI case study. M. Bertini (Eds. Sleep and Hypnosis, 17, 12. The usual effects of sleep deprivation on the prefrontal lobes functions are well known and include irritability, lack of attention and concentration, working memory impairments, and lack of self-regulation skills (Durmer & Dinges, 2005). MIT Press. Freud, S. (1966). Years later, using PET with H2150 radioactive tracers, which are the most suitable for sleep research, Braun et al. Sleep-related injury in 100 adult patients: A polysomnographic and clinical report. Furthermore, the cats pupils display miosis and are covered by the nictitating membranes in same way as during REM sleep. Optic aphasia, optic apraxia, and loss of dreaming. Dreaming is an active psychophysiological process that involves the presence of perceptible hallucinatory images during sleep (i.e., the visual, auditory, tactile, kinesthetic, and linguistic kind), and cognitive activity with an emotional content of variable intensity that has been generated internally (Desseilles, Dang-Vu, Sterpeinch, & Schwartz, 2011). This also supports the hypothesis that Unit 3 is inactive and not necessary for the dreaming process. doi: 10.1016/j.smrv.2010.01.002, Vogel, G. W. (1979). RBD seems to be an early warning sign of Parkinsons disease, as some authors have noted that 65% of patients with this sleep disorder develop the disease within an average of nine years after RBD shows up (Abbott, 2005), indicating the degenerative etiology of this disorder. The Psychologist, 13(12), 618-619. (1980). It was not until 1900, however, that Sigmund Freud (1966) published his book The Interpretation of Dreams, which included the first scientific approach to the subject from a purely psychological point of view. La Interpretacin de los Sueos. They also suggest that these cognitive strategies during adult dreaming are equivalent to the processes of fantasy, and are far from the reality thought of a young child during wakefulness (Piagets preoperational stage). Frith, C. D. (2007). Dreaming is considered a type of natural confabulation, similar to the one that occurs in patients with frontal lobe damage or schizophrenia. Barcelona: Editorial, Crtica. (1981) cats and is the result of the activation of Units 1, 2, and especially L, along with the simultaneous inhibition of the prefrontal lobe. (2010). This is the result of an exceptional and sudden reactivation of the functioning of the dorsolateral and medial regions of the left prefrontal lobe and the temporoparietal region during REM sleep. This picture shows the four Functional Units of the Brain: Unit 1(reticular system), Unit 2 (parietal, occipital and temporal lobes), Unit 3 (Frontal lobe) and Unit L (limbic system). Furthermore, there is a lack of control over the course of dream scenes, in which there are often violations of the laws of physics. To present our proposal about the generation and bizarre content of dreaming, we took as a general framework Lurias Three Functional Units Model (Luria, 1974), which attempts to explain the neuropsychological functioning of human beings during wakefulness. 1204-1214). ), Temas Selectos de Neurociencias. Schwartz and Maquet (2002) suggested that the bizarre content of dreaming is similar to certain neuropsychological syndromes that produce visual and spatial agnosia. Atencin, Aprendizaje y Memoria: Aspectos psicobiolgicos. This can be interpreted as the result of a broad activation of Unit L without a cortical regulation (Buchsbaum et al., 1989). Major disorders of mind and brain. Washington, D. C.: American Psychological Association. doi: 10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2011.10.009. Archives of General Psychiatry, 37(3), 247253. During dreaming, only the limbic region is activated, not the prefrontal; this fact produces a partial or total loss of memory of the oneiric content upon waking up in most people (Figure 1). It can be said that dreaming is a state similar to a schizophrenic or frontal lobe syndrome, but temporary, normal, and healthy, so that the next day, the brain can carry out its homeostatic function, and promote optimal functioning of the dorsolateral and orbital region of the frontal lobe during wakefulness. The social brain? Madsen (1993), using PET, found a drop in metabolism in the orbitofrontal region during REM sleep. Mxico: Trillas. Science, 281(5380), 11881191. Rapid eye movement sleep dreaming is characterized by uncoupled EEG activity between frontal and perceptual cortical regions. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 88(148), 525. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6(1), 2330. Luria (1974) mentioned that the confabulations of these patients are similar to the oneiric states in terms of the loss of the selectivity of mental processes, which is typical of the normal conscious life (Figure 1). (1985). The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 14(3), 283288. International Journal of Dream Research, 3(1), 3645. Universidad Autnoma de Nuevo Len (UANL), Monterrey, Mexico. Right hemispheric mediation of dream visualization: A case study. Thus, the main proposal of this model, is that the characteristics of the oneiric content -that is, the lack of planning and control of critical and coherent thought toward what is dreamt, as well as the ease by which emotional and motivational impulses emerge in dreams basically correspond to an increase in the activity of Unit 1, 2 (with the exception of the PTO region), Unit L, and the medial region of the prefrontal lobe that occurs simultaneously with the inhibition of the dorsolateral and orbital regions of Unit 3 (Figure 1). The pre-frontal lobe is divided into three regions: 1) The dorsomedial region, which is associated with executing functions such as the formulation of goals, working memory, planning, execution of plans, and the self-regulation of behavior; 2) the orbital frontal region, which is related to the inhibition and control of impulses and social tact; and 3) the medial region, which has been related to motivation and the process of thinking what another person is thinking, also known as mentalization, a second order process of representation relevant to social skills (Frith, 2007). New Jersey: Medical Publications. On the other hand, we find non-REM sleep characterized by a decrease in psychophysiological activity in general (Tllez, 1998). Such can be the case of people with schizophrenia (Gershon & Rieder, 1992; Goldberg, 2002) and major depression (Beck, 2008), and the 75% of criminals who exhibit low metabolism in the prefrontal lobe during wakefulness (Goldberg, 2002; Gibbs, 1995). dreaming, brain, neuropsychology, functional units, Lurias model. However, this model has not been entirely confirmed by recent studies with PET (Braun et al., 1997; Buchsbaum et al., 1989; Madsen, 1993; Maquet, 1996). Corsi-Cabrera et al. 233250). Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6(11), 475-481. doi: 10.1016/S1364-6613(02)01992-7, Nofzinger, E. A. In this way, the frontal lobe can carry out the functions of planning, execution, evaluation, attention, working memory, self-observation, better impulse control, and proper de-cision-making, allowing the individual to carry out a proper everyday life of social interaction. doi: 10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00037-X, Cummings, J. L. (1995). Sleep imaging and the neuro-psychological assessment of dreams. (1998). The study also suggests that the confabulatory, bizarre, and impulsive nature of dreaming has a function in the cognitiveemotional homeostasis that aids proper brain function throughout the day. All this intense psychophysiological activity is accompanied by muscle atonia (Berger, 1961), the function of which, some authors have mentioned, is to avoid the translation of the dream into action (Fisher, 1973). This is because of the cognitive and emotional similarities between them, such as the exaggeration of the emotional activity that contributes the deterioration of rationality and to the lack of selective attention and direction of cognitive knowledge which, besides being grotesque, contains a great quantity of confabulations. This disorder is named REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD) and is characterized by the absence of the muscle paralysis which is customary during this stage of sleep, as a result of neurological related disorders. What are the differences between the neuropsychological systems involved in the conscious processes of wakefulness, and the ones involved in dreaming? Figure 1. (1968). Anatomic and behavioral aspects of frontal-subcortical circuits. Solms, M. (2000). ), Rehabilitacin Neuropsicolgica (pp. Tonus of extrinsic laryngeal muscles during sleep and dreaming. Other indications that the prefrontal lobe is hypo-functioning during dreaming come from comparing studies of interhemispheric and intra-hemispheric electroencephalographic correlation during wakefulness, REM, and non-REM sleep. This leads us to think of the oneiric process as basically a process of confabulation, suggesting that dreaming is a type of normal confabulation that happens every night in a cyclical way, but does not differ much from the confabulatory thoughts of patients with frontal lobe damage. Vandekerckhove, M., & Cluydts, R. (2010). Therefore, the objective of this article is to present a neuropsychological model of dreaming based on the most relevant clinical, experimental, psychophysiological, and neuropsychological research. Using the same technique, Maquet et al. These structures have a connection with Unit L. Moreover, the dorsolateral region of the prefrontal lobe (Brodmanns areas 9, 10, 45, 46, 47) and the orbital frontal region (Brodmanns areas 11 and 12) show an inhibition during dreaming. Dresler, M., Wehrle, R., Spoormaker, V. I., Koch, S. P., Holsboer, F., Steiger, A., Obrig, H., Smann, P. G., & Czisch, M. (2012). However, there are psychological processes that have received little attention in this field; among them is the process of dreaming. The contribution of cerebral hemispheric disease to the understanding of dream type and content. doi: 10.1016/0013-4694(73)90176-4, Aserinsky, E., & Kleitman, N. (1953). Variations of heart rate during sleep as a function of the sleep cycle. doi: 10.1093/brain/120.7.1173, Brewer, J. However, the activation of the First Unit during dreaming is not completely the same as in wakefulness because a cortical motor inhibition occurs, producing motor paralysis (Berger, 1961; Fisher, 1973). Tllez, A. Calvo, J. M. Colace, C., Salotti, P., & Ferreira, M. (2015). A. Normal human sleep: Regional cerebral hemodynamics. The prefrontal cortex in sleep. Acalculia: Aproximacin neuropsicolgica al anlisis de la alteracin y la rehabilitacin del clculo. Such research has been examined here. (2003) found an absence of electroencephalographic correlation between the frontal and perceptual regions, as well as an increased correlation among the perceptual regions. Schizophrenia studies with PET have shown diminished frontal lobe functioning. In I. Karacan (Ed.). Science, 134(3482), 840. doi: 10.1126/science.134.3482.840, Braun, A. R., Balkin, T. J., Wesenten, N. J., Carson, R. E., Varga, M., Baldwin, P., Selbie, S., Belenky, G., & Herscovitch, P. (1997). doi: 10.1176/jnp.14.3.283. Sleep, 18(7), 570-580. Tsvetkova, L. S. (1996). That is the reason why Hobson and Stickgold (1995) stated that dreaming represents a model for explaining schizophrenia. Furthermore, both conditions show similar neuropsychological functioning: a hypo-functioning of the frontal lobe and an activation of Unit L. These characteristics impede the schizophrenic patient and the dreamer from organizing their thoughts, integrating them with emotions, and turning them into appropriate actions. (2002). Regularly occurring periods of eye motility and concomitant phenomena during sleep. During REM sleep, there is an activation of the First Unit similar to what occurs in the state of wakefulness, which manifests itself with an increase of the electroencephalographic and metabolic activity in most regions of the brain. 9, Mokhovaya st., Moscow, Russian Federation, 125009, Apollinaria Chursina, Scientific Researcher. doi: 10.1126/ science.281.5380.1188, Welsh, M. C., & Pennington, B. F. (1988) Assessing frontal lobe functioning in children: Views from developmental psychology. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 20, 92-99. doi: 10.1016/j.smrv.2014.06.004, Durmer, J. S., & Dinges, D. F. (2005). Developmental Neuropsychology, 4(3), 199230. Murri, L., Bonanni, E., Stefanini, A., Goldstein, L., Navona, C., & Denoth, F. The activation of the supplementary motor area (Brodmanns area 6) and primary motor area (Brodmanns area 4) produces a programming and activation of a sequence of corporal movements during the oneiric content; but said activation remains on a representational level, because an inhibition occurs in the caudal region of locus coeruleus located in the pons of the brain stem (Unit 1) due to hyperpolarization of the motoneurons in the spinal cord. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 14(4), 219226. Dresler et al. The similarity between dreaming, frontal lobe syndrome and schizophrenia are stressed, especially in terms of the confabulations, the lack of impulse control, and the lack of self-direction and monitoring that occurs in these disorders. (2002). For example, there could be dreams with a very high emotional content due to the intense activity of Unit L, a high imaginative-visual content with an increase of activity in the right hemisphere of Unit 2, or a high narrative-linguistic content produced by the left hemisphere, but always partnered with an inhibition of the dorsolateral and basal regions of Unit 3. Brain, 120(7), 11731197. Science, 281(5380), 11851187. How can it be proven that the hypo-functioning of the prefrontal lobe and the limbic hyper-functioning during dreaming fulfill a homeostatic need for good psychological functioning during wakefulness? We propose that the inhibition of prefrontal lobe functioning and the increase in activity of Unit L during REM sleep can have a cognitive and emotional homeostatic function that is important for good psychological performance during wakefulness. Madsen, P. L. (1993). Although Luria does not explicitly mention it, we believe it is convenient to incorporate the limbic system as a Fourth Unit: D) Unit L, which includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and fornix, comprises the limbic system, as well as para-limbic structures, such as the cingulate gyrus and the para-hippocampal and orbitofrontal regions. Buenos Aires: Paids. (1995). Blood flow and oxygen uptake in the human brain during various states of sleep and wakefulness. Psychophysiology, 21(3), 279289. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 9(3), 157172. State of the Art, 2008 - 2022. Heart rhythm control during sleep. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1995.
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